Auditory phantom perception, exemplified by tinnitus, is characterized by a perceptual experience without external stimuli. This study utilized two auditory illusions, the Zwicker Tone (ZT) and Conditioned Hallucinations (CH), as proxies to investigate the neural correlates of bottom-up and top-down mechanisms underlying phantom auditory perception. Using a within-subject design, ZT, driven by temporary sensory deficits, and CH, influenced by multisensory expectations, were examined in a sample of healthy participants. Electrophysiological measures revealed distinct time–frequency patterns, with increased theta activity in central regions during ZT perception but decreased parietal theta power during CH perception. Key regions in the ZT network, including the medial prefrontal cortex, lateral orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral posterior cingulate cortex, suggested the involvement of the default mode network and predictive processing in compensating for sensory deficits. In contrast, CH perception implicated the parahippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and inferior temporal gyrus in modulating multisensory associations and cognitive expectations. Taken together, this study revealed the neural mechanism of two auditory illusions, which enhances understanding of tinnitus mechanism. The results also highlight potential neural targets for neuromodulation interventions addressing both sensory and cognitive components of chronic phantom perception.

Neural activation patterns underlying motor learning that are captured using functional imaging can only reflect the patterns occurring at a given moment. Motor learning is known to comprise many processes which are variably biologically or temporally distinct. In order to improve the understanding of how regional activation patterns may vary across different mechanisms of motor learning, we performed an ALE meta-analysis of imaging studies that directly compares online and offline motor learning. Using coordinate-based meta-analysis methods and independent review, 1777 studies were returned from 3 databases. Thirty-eight studies investigating motor task learning met the inclusion criteria, were allocated as either online or offline learning based on their scanning placement, and revealed both unique and overlapping regional activation/deactivation patterns. We identify activation changes in regions that are consistent for online learning and offline learning. Our findings concur with those of previous meta-analyses investigating online motor learning, and find support for previous theories surrounding the networks involved in consolidation and offline processes in motor learning. Shared activation between online and offline motor learning was found in the supplemental motor area and somatosensory cortex, highlighting regions which are continually involved in both processes, and identifying those which may be differentially modulated to alter motor learning outcomes.