Brenner asks why, and when, polities that are fundamentally different in “behavior and unit structure” from most of the other polities in the international system emerge (40), whether such novel polities exhibit patterns of behavior, and how the existing international system responds to them. His theoretical approach draws primarily from political science—relying heavily on neorealism, constructivism, and the English school—while also incorporating elements of social psychology. Brenner illustrates his arguments through detailed comparative historical case studies about the Nizari Ismailis (the Assassins), the Mongols, the Barbary states, and al Qaeda.

Brenner argues that radically distinct polities are more likely to emerge when the international system is in flux, particularly during periods of great power decline. In other words, changes in systems lead to changes of systems. Although his discussion leaves the exact connection between great-power decline and the rise of new types of polities slightly underdetermined, his cases draw distinct...

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