Since the early days of generative grammar, the study of “unbounded dependencies” such as wh -questions and relative clauses has occupied a central place in both syntactic theory and language processing research. The problem that such constructions pose is as follows. In a normal wh -question, a wh -phrase is typically displaced to the left periphery of a clause ( What did you say — to John?); this displaced constituent is often referred to as a “filler.” The vacant position (indicated in the previous example by a blank line) where it would ordinarily occur in an “echo” question (You said what to John?) is correspondingly referred to as a “gap.” Filler and gap are mutually dependent on each other since they share syntactic and semantic information essential for successful sentence interpretation. However, since sentence processing is a sequential operation, a filler cannot be assigned to its gap until some time after it has occurred. In other words, the filler must be held in working memory until such time as filler-gap assignment can take place. The intent of the research reported here was to examine the processing of unbounded dependencies in English as revealed in event-related brain potentials (ERPs). To this end, subjects were shown both grammatical and ungrammatical yes/no-questions (Did you say something to John?) and wh -questions. A number of comparisons made at various points in these questions showed that both the storage of a filler in working memory and its subsequent retrieval for filler-gap assignment were associated with an enhanced negativity between 300 and 500 msec poststimulus over left anterior sites. This effect of left anterior negativity (LAN) was independent of and orthogonal to the grammaticality of the eliciting condition. We show how this interpretation coincides with recent studies that demonstrate a correlation between left anterior negativity, working memory capacity, and successful language processing.

Word repetition has been a staple paradigm for both psycholinguistic and memory research; several possible loci for changes in behavioral performance have been proposed. These proposals are discussed in light of the event-related brain potential (ERP) data reported here. ERPs were recorded as subjects read nonfiction articles drawn from a popular magazine. The effects of word repetition were examined in this relatively natural context wherein words were repeated as a consequence of normal discourse structure. Three distinct components of the ERP were found to be sensitive to repetition: a positive component peaking at 200 msec poststimulus, a negative one at 400 msec (N400), and a later positivity. The components were differentially sensitive to the temporal lag between repetitions, the number of repetitions, and the normative frequency of the eliciting word. The N400 responded similarly to repetition in text as it has in experimental lists of words, but the late positivity showed a different pattern of results than in list studies.