. | Pre-Soviet . | Soviet . | Post-Soviet . | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
. | Urbanization Rate . | Factories per 1,000 People, 1868 . | Log Production per Worker, 1868 . | Road Density . | GULAG . | Log Population Density, 2000 . | Log Light Density, 2008 . | |
. | 1863 . | 1913 . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | |
. | (1) . | (2) . | (3) . | (4) . | (5) . | (6) . | (7) . | (8) . |
Serfs % (1858) | −15.559*** | −15.618*** | −50.056 | −0.651* | −0.009*** | −0.296** | −1.001*** | −0.820*** |
(5.051) | (5.524) | (34.049) | (0.338) | (0.003) | (0.124) | (0.339) | (0.295) | |
Flexible controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Distances: City and provincial capital | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Fixed effects | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province |
Observations | 483 | 490 | 483 | 434 | 490 | 490 | 490 | 490 |
0.39 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.33 | 0.54 | 0.40 | 0.64 | 0.57 | |
Number of clusters | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 |
for | 5.544 | 4.818 | 4.400 | 5.786 | 32.208 | 2.376 | 19.789 | 17.248 |
Lower-bound estimates | −14.851 | −14.146 | −49.582 | −0.652 | −0.010 | −0.243 | −1.094 | −0.888 |
Conley S.E. 300 km | ||||||||
Serfs % (1858) | [4.828]*** | [5.049]*** | [33.099] | [0.264]** | [0.003]*** | [0.136]** | [0.350]*** | [0.303]*** |
. | Pre-Soviet . | Soviet . | Post-Soviet . | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
. | Urbanization Rate . | Factories per 1,000 People, 1868 . | Log Production per Worker, 1868 . | Road Density . | GULAG . | Log Population Density, 2000 . | Log Light Density, 2008 . | |
. | 1863 . | 1913 . | . | . | . | . | . | . |
. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | |
. | (1) . | (2) . | (3) . | (4) . | (5) . | (6) . | (7) . | (8) . |
Serfs % (1858) | −15.559*** | −15.618*** | −50.056 | −0.651* | −0.009*** | −0.296** | −1.001*** | −0.820*** |
(5.051) | (5.524) | (34.049) | (0.338) | (0.003) | (0.124) | (0.339) | (0.295) | |
Flexible controls | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Distances: City and provincial capital | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Fixed effects | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province | Province |
Observations | 483 | 490 | 483 | 434 | 490 | 490 | 490 | 490 |
0.39 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.33 | 0.54 | 0.40 | 0.64 | 0.57 | |
Number of clusters | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 |
for | 5.544 | 4.818 | 4.400 | 5.786 | 32.208 | 2.376 | 19.789 | 17.248 |
Lower-bound estimates | −14.851 | −14.146 | −49.582 | −0.652 | −0.010 | −0.243 | −1.094 | −0.888 |
Conley S.E. 300 km | ||||||||
Serfs % (1858) | [4.828]*** | [5.049]*** | [33.099] | [0.264]** | [0.003]*** | [0.136]** | [0.350]*** | [0.303]*** |
The unit of observation is a district. Flexible controls include eight dummies for cereal suitability and four dummies for quartiles of growing season temperature, growing-season precipitation, the share of podzol soil, and river density, as well as linear controls of latitude and longitude of the district, the area covered by forest, ruggedness, the distance to the coast, and the distance to Moscow. Distances are the distance to the nearest city in 1600 and the distance to the provincial capital. The restricted model used to compute and the lower-bound estimates controls for province fixed effects. Standard errors clustered at the province in parentheses. , **, and ***.