Tables 1 to 3 present the results of estimating models (1) and (2) for each of the three policy issues. The specifications in each table differ in terms of the regressors and fixed effects included, or the econometric methodology employed, but all provide strong support for the first prediction of our model. Focusing on the key regressors, we see that the estimated coefficients $λ1$, $λ2$, and $λ3$ match the expected sign and significance. To save on space, in tables 1 to 3 we only report the coefficients of our key variables of interest (see tables 1 to 3 in section C.3 of the online appendix for a longer version of these tables, which includes the coefficients of the auxiliary controls).

Table 1.
The Impact of Election Proximity on Votes on Gun Regulations: Party Differences
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ 0.071* 0.072* 0.070* 0.085** 0.103** 0.103** 0.099**
(0.038) (0.037) (0.037) (0.041) (0.045) (0.043) (0.043)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ 0.460*** 0.457*** 0.456*** 0.460*** 0.395*** 0.386*** 0.382***
(0.048) (0.048) (0.049) (0.066) (0.110) (0.117) (0.117)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ 0.430*** 0.429*** 0.429*** 0.434*** 0.363*** 0.359*** 0.356***
(0.044) (0.045) (0.045) (0.063) (0.110) (0.116) (0.116)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460
$R2$ 0.591 0.594 0.645 0.694 0.218 0.226 0.341
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.101 0.134 0.136 0.324 0.158 0.254 0.254
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ 0.071* 0.072* 0.070* 0.085** 0.103** 0.103** 0.099**
(0.038) (0.037) (0.037) (0.041) (0.045) (0.043) (0.043)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ 0.460*** 0.457*** 0.456*** 0.460*** 0.395*** 0.386*** 0.382***
(0.048) (0.048) (0.049) (0.066) (0.110) (0.117) (0.117)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ 0.430*** 0.429*** 0.429*** 0.434*** 0.363*** 0.359*** 0.356***
(0.044) (0.045) (0.045) (0.063) (0.110) (0.116) (0.116)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460
$R2$ 0.591 0.594 0.645 0.694 0.218 0.226 0.341
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.101 0.134 0.136 0.324 0.158 0.254 0.254
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)

The table reports coefficients of a linear probability model. Robust standard errors in parentheses, adjusted for clustering at the state level in columns 1–4 and senator level in columns 5–7. The dependent variable Vote$ijvt$ is coded as 1 when senator $i$ from state $j$ voted pro-gun on vote $v$ in year $t$. All specifications include senator controls. The sample covers the period 1994–2012. The last row reports the $p$-value of the test. ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at 1%, 5%, and 10%.

Table 2.
The Impact of Election Proximity on Votes on Environmental Regulations: Party Differences
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ −0.004 −0.003 −0.003 −0.004 −0.002 −0.002 −0.002
(0.007) (0.007) (0.007) (0.008) (0.007) (0.007) (0.007)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.366*** −0.370*** −0.370*** −0.374*** −0.246*** −0.243*** −0.245***
(0.023) (0.023) (0.023) (0.027) (0.062) (0.064) (0.063)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.388*** −0.391*** −0.392*** −0.391*** −0.260*** −0.256*** −0.259***
(0.023) (0.023) (0.023) (0.028) (0.061) (0.064) (0.063)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277
$R2$ 0.360 0.361 0.423 0.437 0.022 0.022 0.125
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.074 0.086 0.088 0.074
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ −0.004 −0.003 −0.003 −0.004 −0.002 −0.002 −0.002
(0.007) (0.007) (0.007) (0.008) (0.007) (0.007) (0.007)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.366*** −0.370*** −0.370*** −0.374*** −0.246*** −0.243*** −0.245***
(0.023) (0.023) (0.023) (0.027) (0.062) (0.064) (0.063)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.388*** −0.391*** −0.392*** −0.391*** −0.260*** −0.256*** −0.259***
(0.023) (0.023) (0.023) (0.028) (0.061) (0.064) (0.063)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277 37,277
$R2$ 0.360 0.361 0.423 0.437 0.022 0.022 0.125
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.074 0.086 0.088 0.074
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)

The table reports coefficients of a linear probability model. Robust standard errors in parentheses, adjusted for clustering at the state level in columns 1–4 and senator level in columns 5–7. The dependent variable Vote$ijvt$ is coded as 1 when senator $i$ from state $j$ voted pro-environment on vote $v$ in year $t$. All specifications include senator controls. The sample covers the period 1971–2012. The last row reports the $p$-value of the test. ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at 1%, 5%, and 10%.

Table 3.
The Impact of Election Proximity on Votes on Reproductive Rights: Party Differences
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ −0.030 −0.030 −0.030 −0.033 0.002 0.002 0.002
(0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.025) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.735*** −0.737*** −0.737*** −0.743*** −0.055 −0.055 −0.059
(0.053) (0.051) (0.052) (0.063) (0.064) (0.064) (0.068)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.737*** −0.738*** −0.738*** −0.738*** −0.049 −0.049 −0.052
(0.051) (0.050) (0.051) (0.060) (0.058) (0.058) (0.062)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995
$R2$ 0.730 0.731 0.747 0.770 0.020 0.020 0.098
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.888 0.939 0.957 0.721 0.574 0.574 0.559
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)
Vote$ijvt$
Dependent Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)
Senate3$it$$×$ Democrat$it$ −0.030 −0.030 −0.030 −0.033 0.002 0.002 0.002
(0.021) (0.021) (0.021) (0.025) (0.012) (0.012) (0.012)
Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.735*** −0.737*** −0.737*** −0.743*** −0.055 −0.055 −0.059
(0.053) (0.051) (0.052) (0.063) (0.064) (0.064) (0.068)
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ −0.737*** −0.738*** −0.738*** −0.738*** −0.049 −0.049 −0.052
(0.051) (0.050) (0.051) (0.060) (0.058) (0.058) (0.062)
State controls no yes yes yes no yes yes
Year dummies yes yes no yes yes yes no
State dummies yes yes yes yes no no no
Vote dummies no no yes no no no yes
State $×$ Year dummies no no no yes no no no
Senator dummies no no no no yes yes yes
Observations 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995 4,995
$R2$ 0.730 0.731 0.747 0.770 0.020 0.020 0.098
Test Senate3$it$$×$ Republican$it$$=$ 0.888 0.939 0.957 0.721 0.574 0.574 0.559
Senate12$it$$×$ Republican$it$ ($p$-value)

The table reports coefficients of a linear probability model. Robust standard errors in parentheses, adjusted for clustering at the state level in columns 1–4 and senator level in columns 5–7. The dependent variable Vote$ijvt$ is coded as 1 when senator $i$ from state $j$ voted pro-choice on vote $v$ in year $t$. All specifications include senator controls. The sample covers the period 1997–2012. The last row reports the $p$-value of the test. ***, ** and * indicate statistical significance at 1%, 5%, and 10%.

Close Modal